Andrew Stutts

When exploring ancient Chinese influential literature, the Tao Te Ching captivates the hearts of many. It is an enduring Chinese manuscript written over a thousand years ago, purportedly by a legendary Chinese sage known as Lao-Tzu. This spiritual and philosophical masterpiece has influenced China and much of East Asia for centuries. The Tao Te Ching originated Taoism which had a far-reaching relationship with and impact on various areas of not only Chinese but East Asian culture to include political thought, religion, magic, and philosophy. Throughout the centuries this work has held a vast array of meanings. When exploring this work it is captivating to think of why it was created. Was it created to be used as a work of guidance for governments? Perhaps this work was meant as a religious doctrine for mass peoples to follow literally or metaphorically. One will never know for certain why or who it was created by, but one thing is for certain and that is that this work was extremely progressive thinking for its time. Looking into the meanings behind the writings, its authorship, and its religious impacts perhaps we will delve into its purpose.

To begin analyzing the Tao Te Ching and its deep influence on Chinese and East Asian culture its best to first begin with a comprehension of the title. A definition of the title facilitates an understanding of the intent, the beauty of this divine script, and its impact upon humanity. Originally, the book we know today as Tao Te Ching was simply called Lao Tzu, after the author’s name. People used Lao Tzu to refer to both the book and the man legend attributed to writing it. The most literally translation of the title of the Tao Te Ching is “The Classic of the Way and Virtue.” (Chang) However, it is the first word in the title, Tao, which provides an elucidation to the purpose and aspiration of this incomparable manuscript. The word Tao is an ambiguous term. The most common English translations are “the way”, “the path”, ‘the road”, and “the method”. In the most general sense it is the way of harmony. According to the Tao Te Ching, to attempt to define Tao is a contraction in itself because to define Tao one loses its meaning and can never grasp its concept. This is because at its heart, the Tao is nonverbal in its fundamental nature and is beyond language. The Tao must be practiced and not defined. The Tao Te Ching describes the Tao as emptiness and fullness, fluidity and continual change. The Tao could be described as the reality of existence beyond illusions, as everything and nothing. In the Tao Te Ching, Tao is described as the entirety, totality, or sum of the universe. (Wheeler)

To fully appreciated and savor the mystery of the Tao Te Ching its authorship should also be examined and reviewed. The writing of the Tao Te Ching is credited to a legendary man named Lao-Tzu. Lao-Tzu could be considered the first Taoist philosopher or the founder of this system of thinking. The suffix Tzu means “master” or “teacher” and the word Lao means “Old man”. The meaning of Lao-Tzu’s name leads some scholars to believe that he was not a historical figure at all but, in fact an archetypical personification of wisdom in folklore. (Chan) Normally, when a person of the spiritual or philosophical magnitude of Lao-Tzu actually lived we know the dates of their birth and death. Case in point, we know that Confucius and Buddha were born about 2500 years ago. However, little is known about the historical life of Lao-Tzu. According to Taoist myth he never really died but ascended into heaven just as Jesus is purported to do in Christian scriptures. (Chang) In one tradition it is believed that Lao-Tzu’s actual name was Li Erh and that he was born in the ancient Chinese state of Ch’u in the late 6th century. (Chan) In any case, if Lao-Tzu was indeed a real person he was more than likely an older contemporary of Confucius and born in the same era as Confucius and Gautama Siddhartha, the historical Buddha. (Chan)(Chang) (Schumacher) Moreover, his birth preceded both Confucius and Buddha in the same age. Just one hundred years separated these sagacious men that inspired influential and inspirationally impacting belief system. Not much is known for certain about the historical Lao-Tzu except his philosophy shared similarities with Confucius’s and that they lived during a period of time, between 560 and 300 B.C.E, that many great sages or historical figures were born. (Chang)

Furthermore, by all accounts Lao-Tzu worked for the majority of his life in the court of the Chou dynasty. He lived during a time of unremitting warfare, human suffering, and an oppressively uncaring government. Therefore, it is said that he eventual grew disenchanted and disillusioned by society. Lao-Tzu chose to forsake civilized living and lead a life as meditative recluse in the wilderness. Legend has it that as he departed civilization, on the back of his water-buffalo, a gatekeeper who had always been enamored by his teachings refused to let him leave the borders of the kingdom until he recorded his teachings. This legend also claims Lao-Tzu wrote the entire Tao Te Ching in one sitting, gave it to the gatekeeper for posterity, and left human society for good. (Chan)

It is quite plausible that the Tao Te Ching, similar to much of Confucius’s work, was initially intended for Chinese rulers as well the common man. The Tao Te Ching can be interpreted as a guide to good government as much as a philosophical document. Many consider Lao-Tzu to be the world’s first libertarian. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition, 2000 defines Libertarians in the following manner: “One who advocates maximizing individual rights and minimizing the role of the state. Libertarians favor freedom and oppose government action to promote either equality or order.” (IHS) Additionally, according to Libertarianism: A Primer by David Boaz, Free Press, 1997: “Libertarianism is the view that each person has the right to live his life in any way he chooses so long as he respects the equal rights of others. Libertarians defend each person’s right to life, liberty, and property-rights that people have naturally, before governments were created. In the libertarian view, all human relationships should be voluntary; the only actions that should be forbidden by law are those that involve the initiation of force against those who have not themselves used force-actions like murder, rape, robbery, kidnapping, and fraud.” (IHS) Consequently, this was where Lao Tzu’s ideology fundamentally differed from Confucius’s. Contrasting Confucius, who was a fervent advocate for a social order, Lao-tzu envisioned a revolutionary liberal and noninterventionist form of government. Lao-Tzu believed that society should exist to promote the benefit and contentment of the individual. Likewise he believed the functions of social institutions should be decreased or done away with if they did not provide for the liberty of the individual. Noted libertarian political philosopher Murray N. Rothbard (1926-1995) provided a perceptive insight into the possible political ideology of Lao-Tzu in his 1990 article Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire in The Journal of Libertarian Studies. Mr. Rothbard descried Lao-Tzu in the following manner: “To the individualist Lao-tzu, government, with its ‘laws and regulations more numerous than the hairs of an ox,’ was a vicious oppressor of the individual, and ‘more to be feared than fierce tigers.’” (Rothbard) Lao-Tzu was definitely not a proponent of what today we would refer to as big government. In the Tao Te Ching Lao-Tzu said: “The more taboos and prohibitions there are, the poorer the people become. The more deadly weapons there are, the more our fears turn us numb. When craftiness spreads far, the more bizarre what is done, The stricter the laws are, the less robbers run.” (Tao Te Ching Verse 57) These passages in the Tao Te Ching strongly suggest that Lao-Tzu preferred less government involvement and was probably the world’s first libertarian philosopher. Lao-Tzu’s theories on government, however, were too radically for his time. Consequently, it is no wonder that Confucian ideas wielded the greatest influence on politics in a tyrannically authoritative China and East Asia. (Rothbard)

Although the Tao Te Ching had an influence over Confucianism, Taoism was considerably less rigid. Taoism is not confined to dogmatic rules, definitions and empty language. Instead an instinctive and non-resisting means of attaining harmony with nature is pursued. In Taoism wu wei or flexible non-action is emphasized over inflexible and unyielding action. Whereas wu yu are committed attempts to change human behavior for the better by preventing the evil desires and inclination of humanity in an unbending set of laws. Fundamentally, Confucianism was not at odds with either the concept wu wei or wu yu. However, Confucianism does put forward that attentive thought is essential in making decisions rather than rigidly following rules like that are advocated by wu yu. In this regard its philosophy is similar to Taoism but it discards irrationalism of Taoism. Likewise, Taoist philosophy disregarded the Confucian thought that traditions are vital in their own rite. Taoism also rejects the view that humanity is inherently evil. Taoism has no set belief on humanity’s inherent nature other than we are what we are. In Taoist thought it is useless to always make people behave in a prescribe way. Additionally, those who act righteously out of fear aren’t really righteous after all. Taoist do not dwell over the fine points of moral principles. Instead they live life intuitively and moral principles become instinctive as a matter of course.

Lao-Tzu’s original Taoist philosophy from the Tao Te Ching was destined to have less influence on politics then Confucian ideals. Instead it became infused with mystical beliefs and formed into a religion. A Taoist named Chang Tao-ling founded Taoism as a religion around the 150 B.C.E. The mystical trappings of Taoism were particularly alluring during this time. After the end of the late Chou and early Han periods, Chinese culture separated into three kingdoms and this breakdown of order left a spiritual void in the land that made this blend of mysticism in Taoism particularly appealing during this time. Also, by this time the old nature religions in China had been nearly eliminated by fervent Confucianism, and that void was filled by two contending yet well-matched belief systems, Taoism and Buddhism. This was the catalyst that transformed Taoism from the unbridled philosophical spirit of the Tao and fashioned it into a religious form. (Wheeler)

Many western religious schools of thought stress a duality of thought. That is to say they make clear distinctions between good and evil. Furthermore, they require devotees to accept the good and reject the evil. Taoism viewed these principle characters as two extremes of one complete entirety. Advantage or good did not lie at one end of the continuum, but through carefully maintaining balance and harmony between the two sides. This idea is often expressed with the symbolism of Yin and Yang. Yin and Yang represent the primary and differing forces in nature or the universe. “Yin originally meant ‘sunless’ or ‘northern.’ It was associated with darkness, femininity, emptiness, coolness, and passivity. The opposite state was Yang, which originally meant ‘sunny’ or ‘southern.’” (Wheeler) Yang was related to light, fullness, masculinity, heat, and action. Upon initial review these qualities seem to contend with each other. However, in the Taoist philosophy this conflict is only a superficial and a false image of reality. The reality is both conditions of being need each other to make up the wholeness of actuality. From the Taoist viewpoint wanting, grief, pain, and sorrow are indispensably essential for the qualities of gratification, joy, pleasure, and happiness to exist. Likewise, poor health and vitality are the same experience; they are just at the extreme ends of that equivalent totality of experience. Likewise both masculinity and femininity are also matching. That is to say both are the same form of existence but that they are expressed as complete opposites. Furthermore, all things appear and are expressed in this illusive manner. However, according to Taoist beliefs when one recognizes that these divisions are mere illusion and that the extremes are impermanent, they are in harmony with the Tao or way. Cycling is the normal order of the universe and nature. Therefore, struggling against or attempting not to go through these cycles, one cannot attune themselves with the rhythms of the universe or nature. The primary goal of all Taoist was and is to blend and unify with the universal way. Taoist considers any efforts to prescribe with dogmatically rigid methods or institutions of discipline as pretentious and transient. Instead of accepting only one of the two extremes of the whole, the Taoist sage sought equilibrium, harmony, and concord with all things. (Wheeler)

The Tao Te Ching teaches that when the need for balance of Yin and Yang is recognized conflicting against the natural order of things ends. When this occurs tranquility and enlightenment through non-action or wu wei is attained. It entails doing away with convoluted or unnecessarily elaborate tactics to better the world and to quit striving for self perfection. Additionally, it requires one to cease a calculated temporal existence and to live life spontaneously, flowing from one moment to another. This is the path that leads the way to oneness and supreme elucidation. Following this path makes one skilled at existing instinctively and effortlessly instead of becoming ensnared in the process of desire and struggle. This path of least resistance advocated in the Tao Te Ching always leads back to balance and harmony. (Wheeler)

It was during the Han period that Taoism started to emphasize elements of magic. The Taoist teachings intended to improve vitality and life by living in harmony with nature’s changing balance. There were myths about Taoist master that learned to lengthen their lives and even become immortal. These Taoist masters also supposedly had superhuman abilities such flying and invisibility. Much of this was interpreted from literal readings of the Tao Te Ching that were probably meant to be read symbolically. As a result a multitude of Taoist alchemist experimented with concoctions to make men immortal. Part of the magical system of Taoism emphasized imagery and complex symbolism and was derived from poetry. The color red played a great role in this symbolism and imagery. The sacred color red symbolized the alchemical furnace in Taoist magic. Also, it was representative of the beautiful red-robed patron goddess of internal alchemy in Taoist magic. The Manchurian crane was another frequent symbol seen in Taoist magic. The Manchurian crane image, with the red spot of divinity on its crown, was representative of longevity. Certain material had special relevance to Taoist magic as well. For example, Cinnabar, a red mixture of mercury and sulfur, was believed to contain magical properties for its ability to be transformed into a silvery liquid and then back into a solid. Furthermore, gold was cherished by Taoist but not for the same reason modern people do today. It was valued and celebrated as one of the few materials recognized as imperishable. Jade was also experimented with because it was believed to fend off decay. (Wheeler)

Taoist magicians even experimented with their own bodies. They tried a variety of exercises to build up their chi or life-force. This included but was not limited to a number of yoga like calisthenics and stretching movements. They also created and took various magical elixirs. Many prescribed to precise dietary requirements such as not eating cereals and grains. Wang Ch’ung (circa 100 CE) provided this description of the Taoist magicians: “They dose themselves with the germ of gold and jade, eat the finest fruit of the purple polypore fungus. By eating what is germinal their bodies are lightened, and so they are capable of spiritual transcendence.” (Wheeler) When this spiritual transcendence was attained by an understanding of the Tao, that one was known as a hsien. Hsien means “feathered folk” and describes angelic beings with wings or feathers. Images of hsien featured prominently in art of the Chou period. In fact, in the Taoist text Chuang-Tzu there are depicted as white-skinned, delicate superhuman beings: “These are divine persons dwelling there, whose flesh and skin resemble ice and snow, soft and delicate like sequestered girl-children; they do not eat the five cereals; they suck the wind and drink the dew; they mount on clouds and vapors and drive the flying dragons–thus they rove beyond the four seas” (Wheeler)

The theory of Yin and Yang initially expressed in the Tao Te Ching eventually became connected and associated with a sophisticated system of divination. The primary tool for divination was a book named the I-Ching, or the Book of Changes. In this book, yang was represented by continuous lines and yin by broken lines in a hexagram. Random drawings in sets of six were interpreted using the I-Ching book as a divinatory tool for Chinese courts. This manual for divination used more common language to talk about the intangible cycles of humanity’s experience. This magical system of Taoism tried to make the abstract ideas of the Tao more accessible and to provide for useful and tangible outcomes. (Wheeler)

These magical beliefs of ancient and even some modern Taoist appear peculiar to the western observer. However, one must consider that this is the result of taking the Tao Te Ching and other Taoist writings literally, instead of reflecting on the wisdom of its quintessential elements. For the greatest benefit to the individual and society, the Tao Te Ching should be read with an attempt to grasp the ethical or spiritual lesson imbedded in the text. (Wheeler)

The final important feature one should note when reading the Tao Te Ching is how significant its tenets were in influencing Chinese art, martial traditions, poetry, literature, and philosophy. The designs of Feng-Shui architecture is one example of the influence of Taoist thought on Chinese art. Additionally, Taoist ideas sparked from the Tao Te Ching greatly influenced the martial arts in not only China but much of East Asia. Tai Chi, a martial art as well means of self cultivation and attunement with the Tao, is just one example. Tai Chi has been practiced in China for thousand of years and has its philosophical foundation grounded in the Tao Te Ching. Furthermore, China has exchange cultural ideas with Japan for centuries. This is especially true concerning their martial traditions. The names given to various modern Japanese marital arts are indicative of the influence of the Tao Te Ching and Taoist philosophy. They all include “do” the Japanese word for “Tao” or “way”. Consider the name of the following modern Japanese martial arts: Karate-do (way of the empty hand), Judo (the gentle or yielding way), Kendo (the way of the sword), and Aikido (the way of harmonizing mind and spirit). Finally, the Tao Te Ching and Taoist philosophy influenced China’s and notably the world’s greatest book on military strategy, Sun-Tzu’s The Art of War. (Wheeler)

Of all China’s ancient literature none have captivated the hearts and minds of so many as the Tao Te Ching. The Tao Te Ching is a timeless Chinese classic written over thousand years ago as legend would have it by the wise folk hero Lao-Tzu. This work of genius has inspired the people of China and much of East Asia for ages. The Tao Te Ching engendered Taoism which in turn had an association with or wielded influence on multiple facets of Chinese and East Asian thought to include politics, religion, magic, and philosophy. Through the ages this work has provided an incalculable collection of insights. When investigating this work it is fascinating to ponder its purpose. Was it intended as a work of guidance for governments? Possibly it was created for religious use, a doctrine for mass peoples to follow literally or metaphorically. One will never know for certain the purpose of the Tao Te Ching or who created it but one thing is definite and that is that this masterpiece was exceedingly advanced wisdom for its time. After taking a glimpse into the meanings behind the writings, its authorship, and its religious impacts perhaps we have a better understanding of its purpose and benefit to humanity.

Works Cited

Dale, Ralph A. The Tao Te Ching A New Translation & Commentary. New York, NY: Barnes & Noble Publishing, Inc., 2005. Print.

Chan, Alan. “Laozi.” Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Standford University, 2007. Web. 4 Oct. 2009. <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/>.

Wheeler, L. Kip. “The Tao and Taoism.” Dr. Wheeler’s Website. N.p., 25 Aug. 2009. Web. 9 Oct. 2009. <http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/chinese_taoism.html>.

Chang, Henry. “Tao Te Ching I – Introduction.” Web. 9 Oct. 2009. <http://www.taopractice.org/dragonfly/3/pdf/01-TaoTeChing-01-IntroTaoTeChingI.pdf>.

Schumacher, Mark. “Shaka (The Historical Buddha).” Buddhist-artwork.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Oct. 2009. <http://www.buddhist-artwork.com/statues-buddhism/shaka-nyorai-historical-buddha-statuary.html>.

IHS,. “What is Libertarian? .” Advancing Liberty – Advancing Careers. Institute for Humane Studies At George Mason University , n.d. Web. 9 Oct. 2009. <http://www.theihs.org/ContentDetails.aspx?id=626>.

Rothbard , Murray N. “The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition.” Mises Daily by Murray N. Rothbard. Ludwig von Mises Institute, 5 Dec. 2005. Web. 9 Oct. 2009. <http://mises.org/story/1967>.