Andrew Stutts
Michael de Montaigne views on virtue were introspective and of primary importance. He also understood virtue as a trait that was the responsibility of every person to cultivate. Montaigne’s beliefs concerning virtue can be summarized in the following passage from his essays; “To compose our character is our duty, not to compose books, and to win, not battles and provinces, but order and tranquility in our conduct. Our great and glorious masterpiece is to live appropriately. All other things, ruling, hoarding, building, are only little appendages and props, at most” (Montaigne bk. III, XIII). From this quote on observe that Montaigne believed that the development or virtue was an individual responsibility.
Francois Rabelais was focused on the development cultivation of all constructs of human virtue to the fullest possible extent. This not only included qualities like kindness, empathy and forgiveness, but also courage, discernment, and integrity. He maintained that any undertaking that was done without insight was meaningless and barbaric. Contrariwise, Rabelais surmised that insight without action was unfruitful and inherently flawed. Rabelais supported the notion that mankind when left to their own devices, would be true to their own nature, and do the right thing in every case. His works were a call for the comprehensive reform of culture. He called for this reform because he observed inherent hypocrisy in society and the major institutions. This can be observed in the following section that describes how Gargantua had the Abbey of Theleme Built for the Monk;
“There was left only the monk to provide for, whom Gargantua would have made Abbot of Seville, but he refused it. He would have given him the Abbey of Bourgueil, or of Sanct Florent, which was better, or both, if it pleased him; but the monk gave him a very peremptory answer, that he would never take upon him the charge nor government of monks. For how shall I be able, said he, to rule over others, that have not full power and command of myself? If you think I have done you, or may hereafter do any acceptable service, give me leave to found an abbey after my own mind and fancy. The motion pleased Gargantua very well, who thereupon offered him all the country of Theleme by the river of Loire till within two leagues of the great forest of Port-Huaulx. The monk then requested Gargantua to institute his religious order contrary to all others. First, then, said Gargantua, you must not build a wall about your convent, for all other abbeys are strongly walled and mured about. See, said the monk, and not without cause (seeing wall and mur signify but one and the same thing); where there is mur before and mur behind, there is store of murmur, envy, and mutual conspiracy.” (Rabelais LII).
Miguel de Cervantes believed virtue was cultivated by deeds and this work for perfection of character is more important than the status one is born with. This best example of this is when Don Quixote counseled his squire Sancho Panza before he accepted his governorship of an island. Don Quixote provided Sancho Panza sage advice on this topic in the following extract from “Don Quixote”; “Glory in thy humble birth, Sancho, and be not ashamed of saying thou art peasant-born; for when it is seen thou art not ashamed no one will set himself to put thee to the blush; and pride thyself rather upon being one of lowly virtue than a lofty sinner. Countless are they who, born of mean parentage, have risen to the highest dignities, pontifical and imperial, and of the truth of this I could give thee instances enough to weary thee. Remember, Sancho, if thou make virtue thy aim, and take a pride in doing virtuous actions, thou wilt have no cause to envy those who have princely and lordly ones, for blood is an inheritance, but virtue an acquisition, and virtue has in itself alone a worth that blood does not possess.” (Cervantes Vol. II, XLII) He basically tells Sancho to make virtue a way of life and constantly seek opportunities to perform virtuous deeds. Furthermore, he asserted that one can be lucky and be born into a position of prestige but real honor must be sought out and earned. One cannot receive virtue through the status of one’s birth or through luck; it is gained through good deeds and actions.
For Machiavelli, virtue was a malleable issue that depended upon the situation. He did not view virtue as always being black and white. In Machiavelli’s view sometimes the ends did justify the means. Furthermore, in his view stubbornly standing on principle served no other purpose than to bring on down unnecessarily. The quote aptly highlights his views on virtue; “And I know that every one will confess that it would be most praiseworthy in a prince to exhibit all the above qualities that are considered good; but because they can neither be entirely possessed nor observed, for human conditions do not permit it, it is necessary for him to be sufficiently prudent that he may know how to avoid the reproach of those vices which would lose him his state; and also to keep himself, if it be possible, from those which would not lose him it; but this not being possible, he may with less hesitation abandon himself to them. And again, he need not make himself uneasy at incurring a reproach for those vices without which the state can only be saved with difficulty, for if everything is considered carefully, it will be found that something which looks like virtue, if followed, would be his ruin; whilst something else, which looks like vice, yet followed brings him security and prosperity.” (Machiavelli XV). However, Machiavelli did not totally excuse unscrupulous acts as can be seen in the next quote; “Yet it cannot be called talent to slay fellow-citizens, to deceive friends, to be without faith, without mercy, without religion; such methods may gain empire, but not glory. Still, if the courage of Agathocles in entering into and extricating himself from dangers be considered, together with his greatness of mind in enduring and overcoming hardships, it cannot be seen why he should be esteemed less than the most notable captain. Nevertheless, his barbarous cruelty and inhumanity with infinite wickedness do not permit him to be celebrated among the most excellent men. What he achieved cannot be attributed either to fortune or genius” (Machiavelli VIII). Machiavelli was a realist that accepted the fact that people set aside virtue to accomplish their designs and one was required to match their opposition in kind.
Works Cited
Cervantes, Miguel de. Don Quixote. 2004 EBook
Cervantes, Miguel de. The History of Don Quixote, Volume II., Complete. EBook
Machiavelli, Nicolo. The Prince. EBook
Montaigne, Michel de. The Essays of Montaigne, Complete. EBook
Rabelais, Francois. Gargantua and Pantagruel, Complete.. Project Gutenberg, 2012. eBook. <http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1200/1200-h/1200-h.htm