Andrew Stutts
The Purpose of this essay is to provide a study and an analysis of The Nibelungenlied and women’s roles in Northern Europe. An interdisciplinary view and approach shall be used when providing this analysis. The Nibelungenlied will be discussed from the view point of following three disciplines; history, religion, and gender studies. This paper will investigate the way women’s roles are portrayed in both The Nibelungenlied and The Saga of the Volsungs and the religious cultural paradigms that influenced both. The focus will be narrowed to the discussion of Germanic people of Europe in the 13th Century and prior that inhabited the lands that now make up modern day Germany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia, to include Iceland. The case will be made that the role of women in Northern Pagan Europe was one of relevant power, influence, and status. The argument that social norms of the Northern European Heathen never completely disappeared shall be supported. In summary, how women exerted their influence in both Pagan and Christianized Northern Europe will be discussed.
The Nibelungenlied is the central text in this essay. Therefore, it is necessary to provide the background and historical context of this literary work. Providing this description will build a foundation to the central them of this essay. Finally, this foundational explanation will give clarity to readers unfamiliar with this work.
The Nibelungenlied is a German epic poem from the Middle-Ages and is one the most celebrated heroic epics of German Medieval literature. It was written by an unknown author in the thirteenth century in rhymed poetic form for performance at court in Austria. (Napierkowski) The title translates as “Song of the Nibelungs.” “Nibelungen” is the plural form of “Nibelung”. The “Nibelung” is a dynasty conquered by the hero of the story, Siegfried. The German word “lied” translates to “lay” which means song, poem, or lyric. However, “linguistic studies and historical references date the poem’s composition to sometime between 1190 and 1204, with the year 1203 being cited traditionally.” (Krstovic´) Furthermore, “Its literary roots reach back to the Vikings and Scandinavia, possibly to the ninth century, but some scholars believe that the ultimate source was Germany and that the tale spread northward before it came back home in altered form.” (Krstovic´)
A fascinating fact about the Nibelungenlied is that it mixes elements of fiction and history. The Nibelungenliedand its legendary sources survived in oral form long before it was ever written down. There is great deal of information known concerning the historical context of the poem and the literary sources it derived from. In the Nibelungenlied, there is a combination of elements from many different historical, legendary, and mythological tales. The legend of the Nibelungs arose from the historical destruction on the Burgundian kingdom on the Rhine River by the Huns around the year 437. Furthermore, various characters in the Nibelungenlied have some historical basis. For example, King Etzel is the historical Attila the Hun who interestingly enough is treated as another Germanic King as opposed to a foreign invader. This is probably due to the fact that the poem altered and combined legends when it was first written down for a medieval audience. (Napierkowski)
The reason why the Nibelungenlied has enjoyed much popularity over the centuries is for its literary techniques, adventurous qualities, and complex characters. The Nibelungenlied epic honors the triumphs, exploits, and battles of several heroic figures. Furthermore, it includes elements of the romance genre, tales of knights, courtly behavior, and chivalry. (Napierkowski) The Nibelungenlied encompasses Germany’s ancient heroic songs, the fall of the Burgundian Empire, and the courtly romance tradition of twelfth-and thirteen-century Europe. The Nibelungenlied message to its audience is uncertain and is hotly debate by scholars. This story of honor, murder and revenge does not seem to have a clearly defined moral message. However, it does explore the nature of loyalty, honor, and what constitutes a tragedy. The poem’s extensive appeal is probably due to fitting equally well with many interpretations. (Krstovic´)
Northern European culture as with many cultures had an oral tradition extending back into pre-history. The religion of the Heathens or Pagans of Northern Europe did not have an unbroken line of transmission as with the Judea-Christian religions. However, the Pagan people of Northern Europe shared a core of common customs and beliefs prior to the Christianization of Europe. This common culture was linked together by a strong oral tradition. Even after the “official Christianization of the Germanic lands” remnants of Heathen customs and beliefs survived for centuries in scattered folktales, charms, and folk customs. One could argue that many of these fragments can still be observed in modern western society. Nonetheless, many legends of Heathen heroes were reworked to suite the Christian mindset that was encroaching upon Europe. The 13th Century German epic the Nibelungenlied, which the main source for this paper, is a typical example. As previous mentioned this is a courtly retelling of the Saga of the Volsungs, only distilled of its Pagan elements to suite an audience with budding Christian sensibilities. (Gundarsson)
The oral tradition of Northern Europe evolved into an art form called skaldcraft, in which poets memorized epic tales of legend and history. These epic poems were recorded in Norse Sagas, written in prose narratives, in Iceland and Scandinavia in the 12thand 13th centuries. The word “saga” is Old Norse in origin and related the Old Norse word “segja”, “to say” meaning “what is said, or told”. The time period covered in most Sagas is from approximately 930 to 1050 C.E., with most being written between 1190 to 1320 C.E. (Gundarsson)
It was in Iceland that the single largest body of lore that provides a glimpse of pre-Christian customs and beliefs was composed. Some 150-200 years after their conversion the Icelanders took an active interest in the stories and history of their forbearers, recording both historical events and legends in what is commonly referred to as Sagas. The individual that was most notable in this endeavor was Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241). This man was a prominent politician of his day as well a historian and a skaldic poet. It is also worth noting that Sturluson was highly educated in Classical and Christian mythology. Sturluson’s main goal was to ensure skaldic poetry was preserved. He is best known for the Prose Edda which is a reference book of sorts for Norse Pagan religious tales and an instructional text on skaldcraft. Moreover, the Icelandic Sagas can be considered the most reliable source of its kind when studying the social paradigms of pre-Christian Europe. This is due to Iceland’s remote location and its population being the last Germanic people of Europe to convert to Christianity. Furthermore, there was less pressure or influence from the clergy when these oral legends were recorded in Sagas. (Gundarsson)
The exact occurrences in any given Saga cannot be, with very few exceptions, thought of as perfectly historical. However, as Jill Fortney said, in her work If She Says Yes or Is Silent: A New Interpretation of Female Marital Consent in the Settlement Period in Iceland as Revealed Through the Family Sagas, they can be considered “realistic”. Fortney further explains that the “social world described in the Sagas is possible as determined by sociological and anthropological research of societies at similar levels of development”. However, what lends sagas there significant credence or legitimacy is that they have a foundation in a strong oral tradition. Most scholars would agree that the sagas are based on a solid oral tradition. Furthermore, there is strong evidence that Sagas were given equal importance to law. This is demonstrated by the care in which both were handed down. Therefore, this paper relies on the sagas, to include the Nibelungenlied, when supporting its positions and make numerous references to them. (Fortney)
Sagas are useful as an indirect source for religious practice, beliefs, and customs. An example can be seen in Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla. In one part of this saga he describes the rituals Odin established when he came to the people of Scandinavia. This account not only detailed ritual sacrifice but also instructions for honoring the dead. This saga like others can be compared to other written accounts and archaeological sources, which support each other. Burial places are acknowledgeable evidence of religious customs and are invaluable source concerning the customs, beliefs, and societal norms unique to a group of people. In light of this fact, the Sagas should be given no less credibility than other religious texts when detailing the customs of a group of people during the period of time being studied. They should receive no more scrutiny in this regard than the religious texts such as the Bible, Torah, or Koran because they lack codification. (Gundarsson)
The religious beliefs of Northern European Heathens were filled with female beings. In the Sagas, there were not only goddesses but giantesses, elves, nornes (similar to the fates in Greek mythology), and Valkyries. These supernatural female beings played a major role in Norse Pagan cosmology and myths. In addition to being revered, they were significant forces in the shaping of events. The argument can be made that this is a reflection of Norse societal customs as a whole. For what is religion but a reflection of a society’s values and norms?
Compare this to the original Judea-Christian model from the Middle-East. In this religious-societal model women played a minor and subjective role. Furthermore, in the Judea-Christian cosmology feminism is lacking if present at all. The one Creator god is assumed to be masculine in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Christianity, the Father, the Son, and Holy Ghost trinity are absent of female personas. This is true in all denominations of Christianity regardless of views. In fact, one would be hard press to find even a name of an angel with a feminine name. The only reverence for a feminine personality seems to be for Marry the mother of Jesus. However, this reverence, normally associated with Catholicism, was obviously influenced by Goddess worship from pre-Christianized Europe. However, this reverence for the mother was not a cultural norm in the original Christian-Judea model from the Middle-East.
This comparison can not only be seen between divine and semi-divine beings in both the Judea-Christian and Pagan religious models but also in its heroines. In Judea-Christianity heroines exert their influence very passively in a male dominated society. However, Norse society has numerous examples in its Sagas of women taken an active role. A prime example is Brynhilde not accepting a male suitor as a husband unless they best her in a contest of strength and athleticism. Furthermore, it is astounding that she wielded the power to put to death the suitors that failed this challenge. You would be hard press to find a parallel in Christian myth. Moreover, the examples of the female warrior are not only present in western history and literature but also deeply entrenched in the western psyche despite the influence of Christianity. However, the paradigm of the female warrior is completely absent in the Judea-Christian model.
The social paradigm of the submissive female and in a male dominated society was an alien concept to the Heathen of pre-Christianized Northern Europe. I believe it is no coincidence that the western nations of the world have led the way in women’s rights and liberation. The equal and relevant status of woman is a deeply entrenched cultural norm of western society reaching far back into pre-history. Furthermore, in my opinion It was inevitable that the western nations would eventually return to its natural cultural traditions.
To support this view Let’s look at gender roles in the Viking Age. A woman’s role was more multifunctional in the Viking Age society. In society they wielded power in some areas and lacked it in others. Furthermore, they exercised this power in a multitude of ways. Much of what we know about women’s roles in Viking Age society comes from Norse Sagas and these sagas give us the most vivid description. Take the legend of Valkyries. Was there any factual basis? It is known historical fact that women have taken up arms in many cultures. However, the legends of semi-divine Valkyries and mortal shield maidens would lead one to believe that this custom was more common place in Northern European cultures. In fact, it is quoted in Saxo Grammaticus, History of the Danes, circa 1200 CE; “They put toughness before allure, aimed at conflicts instead of kisses, tasted blood, not lips, sought the clash of arms rather than the arm’s embrace, fitted to weapons hand which should have been weaving, desired not the couch but the kill, and those could have appeased with looks they attack with lances.” (Killings)
Women in Norse Sagas are often times depicted as strong-headed, proud, independent and vindictive. There are numerous instances of women encouraging the men to take revenge for family honor. There even instances of the women taking revenge themselves. An example of this can be found in Njals Saga in the story about Hallgerd and Gunnar. However, women were usually in no danger of being killed themselves due to honor. The reason was that laying hand on a woman not only damaged a man’s honor and reputation but also that of his family. (Dasent)
In Norse sagas marriages were often political alliance. The law did not require that the woman give her consent. However, it was normal practices for the fathers or male family members to consult the women concerning these marriages. Furthermore, in the sagas were women were forced into marriages it usually ended badly. It usually ended in divorce and sometimes death for the unwanted husband. (Fortney)
A woman’s rights were protected by bringing a dowry with her into a marriage. The woman was allowed to keep the dowry in the event of a divorce. In fact, it was not uncommon in the sagas for a woman to be married and divorced numerous times. (Fortney)
The “Nibelungenlied” has strong female characters worthy of exploring. Furthermore, it is beneficial to compare and contrast the gender roles in the Nibelungenlied with The Saga of the Volsungs, the Scandinavian version of this German heroic epic. Each version has examples of strong female characters and both stories express women’s roles in slightly different ways. The variation in which women’s roles are expressed in the Nibelungenliedcompared with The Saga of the Volsungsis due to the fact that the Scandinavian version has less Christian influence.
At first glance, time and culture do not seem to be a reason for the differences in gender roles since both versions were written approximately the same time from cultures with similar world views. The Nibelungenliedis a medieval German epic poem, written in Middle-High German in the early thirteenth century. The German poem is a mixture of Norse and Teutonic Mythology. The Saga of the Volsungs is a thirteenth century Icelandic text based on Viking Age Poems and Norse Mythology. Both are written by unknown authors and concern myths and the early history of the kingdom of Burgundy. Additionally, both versions derived from older sources from the early migration period.
The differences in gender roles in both texts is worthy of exploration. It would appear that The Saga of the Volsungsremained truer to its pagan roots. This is not only true concerning women’s roles but in other areas of the story as well. The Nibelungenlied on the other hand has more of a Christian culture influence concerning the roles of women, with only slight indications to the story’s pagan origin. This makes sense in light of Germany being converted to Christianity long before Scandinavia. Scandinavia long held onto pagan customs and beliefs after the rest of Europe converted to Christianity, with Iceland being the last holdout of these social norms.
Compare the character Brynhilde in the Saga of the Volsungs to Brynhilde in the Nibelungenlied. I In the Saga of the Volsungs she was a Valkyries, a semi-divine female warrior in Norse pagan cosmology. Brynhilde is the queen of Iceland in the Nibelungenlied. This is fitting since Iceland was the last holdout of Paganism in Europe and was the last to convert to Christianity. Brynhild’s character in both versions of the Saga is symbolic of the strong role or status of women in pre-Christianized Europe. Intentional or unintentional the symbolism still stands on its own merit.
Although The Nibelungenlied is watered down version of the Saga of the Volsungs due to the influence of Christianity, its pagan origins have risen like phoenix. Most would make the case that the Nibelungenliedis one of the most influential Germanic Epics. Many would say that J.R.R Tolkien was heavily influence by this work when he composed his Lord of the Ringstrilogy. However, Tolkien was equally influenced by the Saga of the Volsungs as well.
The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun was written by J.R.R. Tolkien before he wrote The Hobbit and the Lord of the Rings. This work is not a translation but closely associated poems using modern English fitted to the Old Norse metre with over five hundred stanzas. J.R.R. Tolkien wrote these poems while he was the professor of Anglo-Saxon studies at Oxford. He used various Norse poems, literature, and myths when creating his poems. In this way he followed the formula and tradition used by Norse skaldic poets from ancient times through the Middle Ages. J.R.R. Tolkien’s poems were not published until after his death by his son Christopher Tolkien under the title The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun. (Tolkien)
The fact that Tolkien did not directly translate the Saga of the Volsungs explains some of the minor differences in The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun. For example, The Legend of Sigurd of Gudrun begins with the Norse creation myth whereas the Saga of the Volsungs does not. However, this does not diminish The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun as a valuable text to study. Especially, when studying the influence of Norse Literature on J.R.R. Tolkien the author. The overall story is basically the same in the Saga of the Volsungs and The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun. However, it is interesting to note when discussion Tolkien’s version that the sagas are a living entity. They are evolving with every generation that chooses to study and re-tell their stories. (Tolkien)
Both the Saga of the Volsungs and TheLegend of Sigurd and Gudrunprove useful when exploring the manner in which women of Northern Europe exerted their influence in the 13th century and prior. First, they are both related to the Icelandic version of the German saga The Nibelungenlied, which is the main focus of this paper. There are many similarities between the Icelandic and German versions. Although TheLegend of Sigurd and Gudrun by J.R.R. is another rendition of the Saga of the Volsungs, its value is added by demonstrating the scope of influence the Saga of the Volsungs has had on even more modern literature. Furthermore, there is greater understanding gained when utilizing more than just one interpretation of the original saga. Finally, both sources combined together prove useful in exploring the roles of women in Northern Europe and religious paradigms that influences these roles.
As previously mentioned The Saga of the Volsungs is similar to the Nibelungenliedbut with more Pagan elements. It was written by an unknown author in Iceland in the thirteenth century. Like the Nibelungenlied,The Saga of the Volsungs tells a tale of heroes, romance, deception, revenge, and murder. This theme repeats itself through several generations; tell the heroic and tragic story of two families, the Volsungs and Gjukungs. The Saga of the Volsungs can be divided into three parts. The first part of the saga is concerned with the ancestors of the saga’s main hero, Sigurd. The second part of the saga is about Sigurd himself. The third part of the saga deals with Sigurd’s wife and her family. The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun only differ were mentioned in this paper. Finally, there is much symbolism that can be drawn from The Saga of the Volsungs related the roles and influence women exert in Northern Europe. Especially, when compare and contrasted with the Nibelungenlied. (Byock) (Tolkien) (Hatto)
The Saga of the Volsungs begins with the character Sigi, who is a son of the Norse God Odin. Sigi kills another man’s thrall, Bredi, out jealousy over his hunting prowess. Killing another man’s slave caused Sigi to become an outlaw and caused him to be banished from the land. However, he was watched over by his father Odin and led to Hunland. This Pagan aspect along with many others is absent in the Nibelungenlied. (Byock) (Hatto) (Tolkien)
In Hunland Sigi became king and in time had a son named Rerir. During his long reign Sigi made many enemies including his brother-in-laws. Sigi was killed in his old age by his wife’s brother while his son Rerir was away. Interestingly enough fratricide by in-laws is a recurrent theme throughout the Saga of the Volsungs. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Upon his return Rerir reclaimed the throne and married. Rerir exceed his great father as a king, in combat, and bravery. He avenged his father by killing his uncles and other enemies. However, he had difficulty producing an heir with his wife. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Rerir and his wife prayed to the Norse Goddess Frigg when they had difficulty having children. This element is absent from the Nibelungenlied version and is indicative of the important the life giving role of the female. Frigg convinced Odin to help the couple. Odin sent one of his Wish- Maidens, otherwise known as Valkyries, with magic apples. The wish-maiden Hljod in the form of a crow dropped the apples in Rerir’s lap. Rerir ate an apple, shared it with his wife, and soon she was pregnant with their child. There is much symbolism here that is lost in the Nibelungenlied version of the Saga. A mortal female continued the family line of the hero, a female goddess influenced the chief male deity, and a female Valkyrie projected the magic that made life. (Byock)(Tolkien)Hatto)
Rerir, who was fighting a war fell ill and died. His wife was pregnant for six winters. Rerir’s wife asked that the baby be cut out of her womb before she died. Their son was named Volsung and was born almost the size of a man. Volsung was great in size and strength. He succeeded as ruler of Hunland becoming even more powerful than his father. The sacrifice of the female to create the man hero is only mentioned in the more Pagan version of the Saga. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Volsung married the previously mentioned wish-maid, Hljod. Together they had ten sons, the eldest named Sigmund, and one daughter, Signy. Around a tree named Branstok Volsung had his palace built. It was built so the trunk of the tree was in the palace. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Siggeir, the king of Guatland, asked to marry Signy. Signy reluctantly married Siggeir at the insistence of her father, Volsung. This episode is only in the Volsungversion but both Sagas have examples of females having the final say on who they marry. She had a foreboding of what was to come. Odin attended to the wedding banquet disguised as an elderly, one-eyed man wearing a cape and hood. Disguised as an uninvited stranger, he plunged a magic sword into Branstock and made a challenge that whoever pulled out the sword could have it. Everyone tried to pull it out but only Sigmund, the youngest son of Volsung, was able to pull the sword out. Siggeir wanted the sword and offered to buy it but Sigmund disdainfully refused his offer. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Siggeir was insulted by Sigmund rejection. He jealously coveted the sword and conspired against Sigmund. Three months after the wedding Siggeir hosted the Volsungs in Gautland. In Gautland Siggeir betrayed the Volsungs and had his army attack them. King Volsung was killed and all of his son’s were captured, becoming prisoners of King Siggeir. (Byock)
Signy convinced her husband that it was better to torture her brothers in restraining stocks in the woods, allowing them to die slowly instead of killing them quickly. Every night for nine nights one of the Volsung brothers was devoured by a huge she-wolf. This continued until only Sigmund remained. Signy had honey smeared on Sigmund’s face and mouth. When the she-wolf came for Sigmund she started to lick the honey instead of immediately devouring him. Sigmund opened his mouth and let the she-wolf like inside his mouth. He then bit the she-wolf’s tongue using its strength as it resisted to break the restraining stocks and killed the she-wolf in the process. The Volsung version demonstrates that rulers were influenced by their women albeit sometimes in a passive manner. This part of the story could also be taken to honor the guile of women concerning stratagem. Also, the she-wolf represents the wild, uncontrollable feminine power in nature. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Siggeir was convinced that all the Volsungs were dead, including Sigmund. However, Sigmund lived in the forest literally underground and was aided by his sister Signy. Signy had two sons with Siggeir and sent each of them in turn to live with Sigmund to help him avenge the death of their family members. Sigmund tested each of the boy’s courage having them knead flour which had something alive in it. Sigmund told his sister that each boy was unsuitable to help him seek revenge. Signy had Sigmund kill each of the boys because they were weak and lacked the courage to help them seek revenge. Signy realized none of her sons with Siggeir would be strong enough to help Sigmund seek revenge. Therefore, Signy traded shapes with a beautiful sorceress and slept with Sigmund. Later, without telling Sigmund he was the father, she had a son named Sinfjotli. Although, this part of the story, only in the Pagan Volsung version, does not mesh with modern morality it does demonstrate the strong power women possessed. They were viewed to posses the powers to give life as well as take it. Furthermore, women were movers and shaker in enacting family revenge. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Signy sent Sinfjotli to live with Sigmund, who at eleven was already as large and as strong as a man. Sigmund tested the boy in the same manner as Signy’s other sons. However, this time Sinfjotli passed the test and proved he was worthy to aid Sigmund in seeking revenge. Sigmund told Sinfjotli about Siggier’s betrayal and the boy agreed to help. Sigmund trained the boy and prepared for the time when they were to enact their vengeance. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Sigmund and Sinfjotli tried to sneak into Siggier’s palace and kill him. However, Siggier’s two remaining children discovered them and alarmed their father to their presence. Signy wanted Sigmund to kill them but he refused to kill anymore of her children. Sinfjotli, on the other hand, had no issues with his mother’s request and did not hesitate to kill his siblings. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Sigmund and Sinfjotli were captured and buried in a barrow up to their necks back to back by Siggier’s men. However, Signy managed to get Sigmund’s magic sword to him before they were buried. Sigmund and Sinfjotli used the sword to dig themselves free from the barrow. Once free they set Siggier’s palace on fire while he and his men slept. Signy remained in the palace to die with the husband she hated because of the children she had brother and son kill. However, before she did she revealed that Sinfjotli was Sigmund’s son. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Sigmund returned to Hunland with his son Sinfjotli and re-established a Volsung kingdom. Sigmund married Borghild and had two children, Helgi and Hamund. Helgi fought many battles and won his own kingdom. However, Borghild was jealous of her step-son’s glory and conspired to kill him. She tricked Sinfjotli into drinking poisoned wine. Borghild was banished from Hunland for killing her step-son. Once again the more Pagan Volsung version demonstrates that women were movers and shakers of events. Also, it says a great deal concerning the role of women in Northern Europe that Borghild was banished and not killed for this heinous crime. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Despite being much older than the other suitors, Sigmund competed for and won the love of a new wife, Hjordis. This caused a war because one of the suitor kings, Lyngi refused to give up Hjordis. Due to the God Odin’s interference, Sigmund fell in battle and his magic sword was shattered. However, his pregnant wife found Sigmund mortally wound and was instructed to save the shattered sword so that their son could have it forge into a new sword. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Hjordis fled to and married Alf, the son of King Hjalprek of Denmark. Hjordis gave birth to Sigmund son and named him Sigurd. Alf raised Sigurd as his own son and his family saw to his every need. Sigurd like the rest of the men in his family grew rapidly in both size and strength. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Sigurd had his magic sword re-forged by Regin and avenge his father’s death. He then killed a mighty dragon named Fafnir to fulfill his end of the bargain for Regin re-forging his sword. Fafnir had a treasure that Sigurd and Regin were supposed to share. However, while Sigurd was cooking the dragon’s heart for Regin, he tested it with his finger to see if it was done and put his fingers in his mouth. When he did this he could understand the language of birds and they told him of Regin’s plan to betray him. Sigurd killed Regin, ate the dragon heart, and kept all the treasure himself including a magic ring called Andvaranaut. (Byock) (Tolkien)
At the advice of the birds, Sigurd sought out Brynhild. Brynhild was a Valkyrie punished by Odin for disobedience. She was made to sleep on a mountaintop encircled by flames until a mortal was brave enough to ride through the flame came and awakened her. Sigurd rode through the flame and woke Brynhild. They fell in love but Sigurd had to leave. Brynhild told Sigurd she would sleep in the Ring of Fire until he returned. Sigurd gave the magic ring Andvaranaut to Brynhild as a token of his love until he returned. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Sigurd traveled to the Gjukungs kingdom ruled by King Gjuki. King Gjuki was married to Grimhild and they had three sons that were named Gunnar, Hogni, and Guttorm. They also had a daughter named Gudrun who fell in love with Sigurd. However, Sigurd was in love with Brynhilde. The Gjukungs were so impress with Sigurd’s prowess that they want to make him apart of the family and forego the possibility that he would ever be an adversary. Grimhild tricked Sigurd into drinking a potion that made him forget Brynhilde. Having no memory of Brynhild, Sigurd fell in love with and married Gudrun. Thus Sigurd and Brynhilde got married and had a son named Sigmund and a daughter named Svanhild. Sigurd swore an oath to Gunnar, helping him win many wars and bringing glory to the Gjukungs. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Gunnar sought to marry Brunhild at the urging of his mother Grimhild. However, he needed Sigurd’s help since he was no hero. They used a potion made by Grimhild to exchange shapes. Sigurd once again rode through the flames and woke Brynhild but this time in the guise of Gunnar. It is important to note that The Nibelungenlied tells a different version of this event. As previously mentioned, in the NibelungenliedBrynhild is the Queen of Iceland. In the German version of the Saga, Siegfried (Sigurd) helps Gunther (Gunnar) best Brynhild in a test of strength and skill through the use of a magic cloak. I believe there is in intentional and unintentional symbolism in this detail. Both versions demonstrate female strength. However, in the less Pagan Nibelungenlied Brynhild is a queen not a common woman and not a semi divine being. There is further symbolism in that she loses her great strength when she loses her virginity to her husband Gunther, once again being tricked and overcome by Siegfried. In both versions, she reluctantly agreed to marry Gunnar/Gunther. Three nights Sigurd slept with Brynhild disguised as Gunnar but placed his sword between them. Also, Sigurd replaced the magic ring Andvaranaut with one from Gunnar. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
After the wedding of Gunnar and Brynhild, the potion Grimhild gave to Sigurd started to wear off. He now realized too late that he had broken the vow he made to Brynhilde on top of the mountain. However, Sigurd was unable to do anything since Brynhild was now married to Gunnar. To make matters worse Sigurd made the mistake of telling Gudrun how he helped Gunnar. He also made the tragic mistake of giving the ring, Andvaranaut, to Gudrun. This event is similar in both versions. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
One day while swimming, Gudrun and Brynhild argued over whose husband was greater. Gudrun revealed to Brynhild that it was actually Sigurd in disguise that leaped the flames. Brynhild would not believe Gudrun until she showed her the ring, Andvaranaut. The influence women had over events is demonstrated in both versions of the Saga. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Brynhild had never stopped loving Sigurd. Furthermore, she was enraged that she had been tricked. Brynhild could not be comforted by anyone. Sigurd let her know that he had been deceived into forgetting her. Nothing he said would comfort her. She would not be consoled even when he offered to leave Gudrun and make her his wife. In fact, she refused the offer. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Brynhild wanted revenge against Sigurd and the Gjukungs. She falsely accused Sigurd of have sex with her when he was disguised as Gunnar. Gunnar decided to have Sigurd killed. He convinced his younger brother, Guttorm, to do the deed since he had not sworn an oath to Sigurd. Guttorm mortally wounded Sigurd in sleep but was killed by the hero as he tried to run away. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Both Gudrun and Brynhild were grief stricken at the death of Sigurd. Brynhild told Gunnar that she lied to him to have Sigurd killed. At the funeral pyre, Brynhild ordered the death of Sigurd’s son, Sigmund. Unlike the more Christian influenced version Brynhilde wielded the power to execute Sigurd’s son. Brynhild then killed herself, asking that she be laid next to Sigurd, whom she never stopped loving. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Gudrun did not want to live with her family anymore and left. She stayed with Sigurd’s step-father King Alf for many years. King Atli, the brother of Brynhild, sought to marry Gudrun. The Gjukungs agreed out of fear of retribution for Brynhild’s death. However, it took deception in the form of another potion from Grimhild for Gudrun to agree. Only after Gudrun had married and had two sons with Atli did her memory and grief returned. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Atli wanted Sigurd’s treasure that should have gone to Gudrun and planned a trap by inviting Gunnar and his brother Hogni to a feast in his kingdom. Gudrun tried to warn her brothers but the message got distorted. They decide to go but not before sinking the treasure in the Rhine and swearing an oath never to reveal the location of the treasure. (Byock) (Tolkien)
When the Gunnar, Hogni, and their small band of followers arrived Atli demands the treasure but Gunnar refused. Atli’s men attack the Gjukungs who fought fiercely and nobly. Gudrun even takes up arms and assisted her brothers to no avail. In the end they are captured by Atli’s men. Both Gunnar and Hogni were tortured and eventually killed but neither revealed the location of the treasure. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Gudrun wanted revenge for her brothers’ death. She held a huge funeral feast for her brothers and Atli’s men. At this feast Atli and his men became very drunk. She used this opportunity to kill the two sons she had with Atli. She served their blood mixed in wine and their roasted hearts to Atli and his men. Gudrun told Atli what she had done and stabbed him to death. Then with the help of her nephew she set the hall on fire killing the quest inside. (Byock)
Gudrun did not want to live anymore and tried to throw herself in the sea. However, King Jonakr saved her and convinced her to be his wife. She gave him three sons named Hadmir, Sorli, and Erp. She also had her daughter, Svanhild, come live with her and their new family. (Byock) (Tolkien)
A king named Jormunrek wanted to marry Svanhild and sent his son, Randver, to persuade her. However, Jormunrek’s counselor, Bikki, gave the king’s son the treacherous advice to marry Svanhild himself. Bikki lied and told Jormunrek that his son had betrayed him and that Svanhild was unfaithful. Based on the lie told by Bikki, Jormunrek executed his own son. Jormunrek order that Svanhild be trampled by wild horses. However, the horses refused to do so because of Svanhild’s fierce eyes. Only when her head was covered did the horses trample and kill Svanhild. (Byock)
When Gudrun heard of Svanhild death, she asked her three sons to avenge her death. Erp did not agree to help so Sorli and Hadmir killed him. Sorli and Hadmir attack King Jormunrek and cut off his hands and feet. However, before they could kill him they were driven back by the king’s men. The armor worn by Sorli and Hadmir made them impervious to swords, spears, and arrows. The God Odin once again makes an appearance in the story and advices Jormunrek to have his men stone Sorli and Hadmir. The king’s men stone Sorli and Hadmir and this ends the Saga of the Volsungs. (Byock) (Tolkien)
The Nibelungenlied Sage ended with the battle of Nibelungs and Etzel’s (Atli) army. Furthermore, unlike the Volsungversion, Kriemhild (Gudrun) sought revenge against her brothers for the death of her husband. In the Saga of the Volsung this female character sought revenge against Atli for killing her brothers. Furthermore, it is curious that she is villainized as a she devil only the Nibelungenlied version of the Saga for acts of revenge. Much can be implied concerning the roles of women in Pagan and Christian society in Northern Europe based on this difference.
This essay provided a study and an analysis of The Nibelungenlied and women’s roles in Northern Europe. An interdisciplinary view and approach was used in this analysis. The Nibelungenlied was discussed from the view point of following three disciplines; history, religion, and gender studies. The gender roles in the Nibelungenlied and The Saga of the Volsungs were compared and contrasted. Furthermore, this paper investigated the way gender roles are portrayed in both The Nibelungenlied and The Saga of the Volsungs and the religious cultural paradigms that influenced both. The focus was narrowed to the discussion of Germanic people of Europe in the 13th Century and prior that inhabited what is now comprises the modern day lands of Germany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia, to include Iceland. The case was presented that the role of women in Northern Pagan Europe was one of relevant power, influence, and status. The argument that social norms of the Northern European Heathen never completely disappeared was supported. In summary, how women exerted their influence in both Pagan and Christianized Northern Europe was discussed.
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